What Did the Internment of Japanese Americans Mean Essay

What Did the Internment of Japanese Americans Mean - Essay Example In her account titled â€Å"Confinement and Ethnicity†, Eleanor Roosevelt gives us a vivid picture of the events that took place during that period. Mrs. Roosevelt visited the Gila River Relocation Center in Arizona in 1943 and spoke to different people in an effort to understand clearly what had taken place. The source she used was first hand information and reports from the visits she had made there. Therefore these sources are considered authentic in relating Historical facts. Alice Yang Murray is associate professor of history in the University of California. She had done a lot of research and has authored books like â€Å"Historical Memories of Japanese American Internment and the struggle for Redress†( 2004) â€Å"Major Problems in Asian American History† (2003)and another book titled â€Å"What did the Internment of the Japanese mean† (Alice Yang Murray, 2000) This book is a collection of works by five various historians who were in pursuit of a greater and better understanding of the internment of the Japanese American people during World War II. Murray’s brief yet comprehensive account lays down the causes and the impact it had on internment. Alice Yang Murray is currently doing research on transnational memories of World War II, between 1945 and 2005 in the Pacific. The International context, in addition to class, gender and generation, has helped to shape the political and cultural experiences of the Japanese Americans. During World War II, sociologists and anthropologists participated in research work on Japanese Americans whom the Federal Government had incarcerated. How the Japanese American field Assistants carried out their research, how they collected data regarding the Internment, the difficulties and pressures that they faced, and how they responded to political and ethical issues that they came across are some of the issues dealt with. Alice Yang Murray’s collection begins with

Human Rights Violation in China Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Human Rights Violation in China - Assignment Example The essay begins with a definition of internet regulation and the condition in China and then proceeds to state the conclusion before giving the premises to support it. Counterarguments can be very effective tools to elaborate an argument in an essay. Counterarguments are opposite arguments that help the reader to view the other side of the argument in question. This way, counterarguments help to give the reader both sides of an argument so that they can fully understand what is at stake and help them make the right decision. Counterarguments help to strengthen the writer’s argument especially when the counterarguments are weaker than the arguments being spearheaded by the writer. In the essay, counterarguments have been used to help strengthen the main argument of the essay and also to provide both sides of the argument to enable readers to understand the argument better (Wolterstorff 210). The main argument in the essay is that the Chinese government should not restrict internet use because it violates people’s rights and limits access to information. Several counterarguments have been used in the essay to help strengthen the argume nt and these include â€Å"The government has the right to control and govern the internet according to its own rules and laws within the borders,† and â€Å"Internet censorship system is also very instrumental in safeguarding the Chinese culture against being eroded by the western culture as seen in other countries.† In an essay, the use of various sources helps the writer to read from a wide range of materials thereby getting a big range of ideas to enrich the essay. Credible sources help to give weight to an argument by effectively quoting from materials researched by renowned authors. In the essay, various sources were used to help enrich the content of the arguments.

Consumer Perception and Evaluation of Hewlett-Packard

Consumer Perception and Evaluation of Hewlett-Packard The Notebook PC Industry in Taiwan: An Examination Of Consumer Perception and Evaluation of Hewlett-Packard Abstract This management project is exploratory research to examine the Hewlett-Packard (HP) brand and the Taiwan notebook PC market. HP is one of major players in this market with a brand identity of personalisation, innovation and technology leadership. This objective of this research is to measure the perception of Taiwan consumers about their brand preferences as well as evaluate the effectiveness of HPs brand communication. By setting up focus group interviewing with wholesaler sales representatives and potential consumers, this research developed a structured questionnaire to test and analyse consumers attitudes. The self-administrated questionnaire was conducted online, getting 152 valid samples. It surveyed 20 different attributes of notebook products and brand images to discover consumers attitudes toward the 4 leading brands in the market- HP, Asus, Acer and Lenovo. The results of this research indicate that HP was not able to deliver the brand identity with much success and was ranked in a weaker position then Asus and Acer in terms of all attributes expect reliability in the Taiwan notebook market. It also shows that price is not the most important factor for consumers when they choose a notebook. Instead, much more emphasis is given to quality and function. In chapter 5 of this dissertation, there are some recommendations about HPs future development based on the survey findings. As low price is no longer the most important factor influencing consumers purchasing behaviour, HP should put much more effort on its brand image to create its competitive advantage and expand market share. Keywords Brand Association; Brand Image; Brand Positioning; Brand Preference; Consumer Behaviour; Consumer Perception; Decision Making Process; Hewlett Packard; Loyalty; Marketing Communication Preface I worked for Hewlett Packard Taiwan from 2002 to 2006 as a partner business manager. In that period, I acquired a lot of knowledge in channel management, both from HP itself as well as its partners. However, as a sales representative from the original vendor, I felt that sometimes I made decisions just following past experiences and the suggestions and advices of others without sufficient insight into consumers. Therefore, to prepare for my next career plan, I view this research on consumer perceptions and the position of HP in the Taiwanese notebook market as important preparation for my ambition to become a product manager. In helping me accomplish this management project, I would like to extend my thanks to many people for their confidence in me and for their professionalism. Firstly, I want to thank my supervisor, Dr. Steve Henderson for his patient guidance throughout the course of the research. Without him, it would have been difficult to finish this project. Secondly, I want to say thank you to all the friends who were willing to spare their time in helping me conduct the focus group and questionnaire survey. Their generous help made my research proceed without too many difficulties. Last but not least, I would like to thank my family, for their love, patience and understanding of my prolonged absence from home while pursuing my academic career. With their full support, I have been able to fully focus on finishing this dissertation. Introduction Background Overview Branding has been discussed for several decades as a way to distinguish the products of one producer from others. In increasingly competitive markets, powerful brands become essential to achieve the sustainable development of business. There are a number of views related to brands that are dominant in the literature and in the way that brands have been approached. Traditionally, brands were seen as symbols, and that was reflected even in the definition of brands expressed by the American Marketing Association (2008). In other words, brands were mainly regarded as transaction facilitators, far away from the relationship marketing perspective. Brands were also considered as the producers property. It was implied that the producer is mostly responsible for the communication of the brand, brand related activities, and brand reputation over the long run (Veloutsou 2008). Today, brands are compound entities and their expression includes the perception of the product characteristics, personality and values. It is acknowledged that they could be perceived differently by various corporate stakeholders. Accordingly, terms brand identity (the intended perception brand developers would like the brand to have) and brand image/ brand reputation (how it is perceived by the target audiences) have been developed. Therefore, brands can be the relationship builders (Veloutsou 2008). Actually relationship marketing for fast moving consumer goods relies to a great extent on brands to help in the development of the consumer-firm relationship (Kapferer 2004a; Selame 1993). According to Selame (1993), the function and predominance of brands in the fast-moving consumer goods market is uncontested. Most marketing executives in such industries would not even think to question the importance of brands. As well as the fast-moving consumer goods market, the high-tech industry sees a use of branding (Kapferer 2004). As Zajas Crowley (1995) point out, until the end of the 20th century, the use of brands in marketing high-technology products was minimal. All too often, marketing executives who oversee computers and other high-technology products manage their product lines or marketing mix activities with little consideration for the development of long-term brand recognition. This brings a problem when greater emphasis is given to a products features than to the positioning of its brand-name (Zajas Crowley 1995; Kapferer 2004). Taiwans Notebook Personal Computer Industry As a result of the increasing transition of consumers from desktop PCs to notebook PCs, Taiwans Notebook PC market showed considerable growth in terms of shipment volume. In 2007, 90,165 thousand units were shipped with annual market growth rate reaching 42.1%. MIC (2008) projects that Taiwans notebook PC market will maintain double digit growth until 2011. There is manufacturing competitiveness of Taiwanese notebook personal computer industry during its developing stages of the original equipment manufacturers (OEMs), original design manufacturers (ODMs), and original brand manufacturers (OBMs). A number of trends are affecting the cost of components and materials used to manufacture PCs. The rising cost of oil, Chinas newly enacted labour law (which has increased the cost of assembly labour), reduced tax incentives and the appreciation of the Renminbi (RMB) against the U.S. dollar are challenging the PC manufacturing ecosystems ability to maintain profit margins. Currently, profits run at about 5%. The top ODMs of notebook PCs have stated that they are unable to absorb the increased costs and plan to pass them on to clients (Tsai 2008). On 21 May 2008, Simon Lin, chairman of Wistron, told Taiwans Digitimes that Wistron would raise contract manufacturing prices. This follows similar statements in recent weeks from Compal and Quanta. Gartner (2008) has confirmed the disclosures with all three companies which controlled more than 69% of worldwide notebook PC production in 2007 (refer to Table 1-1). It is the first time these three have attempted, almost simultaneously, to raise prices, even at the risk of losing orders. However, the group carries some weight, which will likely strengthen their position in negotiations with vendors such as HP and Dell. Due to challenges to their competitive advantages, Taiwanese hi-tech enterprises have to consider whether to stay in the OEM field or develop their own brand marketing strategies. Some corporations choose to specialise in the OEM such as Hong Hai Precision Industry Co. Ltd. (Foxconn) and Taiwan Semiconductor Manufacturing Company Limited (TSMC). On the other hand, several firms, including Acer, Asus, and BenQ, recognised the importance of their own brands and have switched their investments and endeavours towards high value-added activities such as research and development, product innovation, and brand building (Chen et al 2007). The goal of all these development strategies is to strengthen competitiveness under the increasing pressure of the changing world environment (Tsai Hung 2007). At most Taiwanese companies, profit margins on sales of branded computers are roughly five times higher than on sales of computers and parts to resellers like HP and Dell, said Jerry Shen, Asusteks chief executive officer (2008). Taiwanese contract manufacturers such as Micro-Star Internal, Clevo, and Asustek (Asus) have started to market their own notebook PC brands through leveraging their manufacturing strengths, a trend that has increased competition across the industry (Simons 2008). Based on the information mentioned above, worldwide brands such as HP and Dell are facing keen competition in the notebook PC market, especially in Taiwan. The IDC report, as summarised by Chinatimes (2007), showed that the notebook market share of local brands Asus and Acer accounted for 33 percent and 32 percent respectively, followed by HP with 12 percent and Lenovo with 7 percent in the 2007 third quarter. In 2008Q1 Asus and Acer, gained over 69% of Taiwans notebook PC market share, including new product line Ultra Low-Cost PC such as Asuss Eee PC products whereas HP and Lenovo remained in the 3rdand 4thplace (Apple news 2008) Overview of HP HP is a leading PC manufacturer, with an approximately 5.6% share in the global hardware market in 2006. It is a provider of personal computing and other access devices, imaging and printing related products and services, and enterprise information technology infrastructure, including enterprise storage. It operates its hardware business through three business units: Enterprise Storage and Servers (ESS), Personal Systems Group (PSG) and Imaging and Printing Group (IPG) and services individual consumers, small- and medium-sized businesses and large enterprises, including the public and education sectors (Hewlett-Packard 2008a). During the three-year period, 2005-2007, its revenues grewat a Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of 10%, mainly due to increases in sales volume of personal systems in consumer and commercial markets. The PSG segment showed significant top line growth of 24.8% to $36,409m, and accounted for 43.5% of total hardware revenues in the fiscal year 2007. Increased sales volume of notebook PCs, particularly in emerging markets, contributed to higher revenue growth during the year (Business Insights 2008). HP remained the leader in the notebook PC market for the seventh consecutive quarter, maintaining an almost 2 million-unit lead over second placed Dell. In the seasonally slow first quarter of 2008, HP also managed to increase their market share Q/Q in five of six regions. Dell was less successful in Q108, increasing share Q/Q in only two regions. Like HP, third placed Acer posted Q/Q shared gains in five of six regions. HP was market leader in three of six regions, and in the fast-growing APAC market, closed to within a few thousand units of Acer. From a brand value perspective, The Interbrands (2007a) annual ranking of the Best Global Brands, in co-operation with BusinessWeek magazine ranked HP is number twelve of the worlds 100 top brands and number five of the technology brands (Table 1-3). HP has gained 9% in brand value since 2006, following a 10% slide from 2004 to 2005 (Kiley 2007). Kiley (2007) pointed out credit should go to CEO Mark Hurd, who told his subordinates that Hewlett-Packard Co. had to stop building and marketing the PC as if they were a commodity. Designing PCs that consumers actually want was the starting point. The marketing team then went about pitching HP PCs as a personal reflection of consumers desires and needs. Hence the slogan: The computer is personal again. was created (Appendix C). Last summer the company rolled out ads showing hip-hop mogul Shawn Jay-Z Carter mixing music and planning tours using an HP notebook PC (Interbrand 2007c) and using self-made ads by celebrities such as Serena Williams, Petra Nemcova and Jean-Michel Gondry even though HP did not pay these people for these ads (BusinessToday 2008). The objective of the campaign was to grow a more profitable worldwide business through the introduction, support, and marketing of innovative products, services, and solutions that will deliver the absolute best customer experience in personal technology. The campaign was targeted at users aged between 18 and 34 and small to medium-sized companies. Besides, HP delivered images related to innovation and technology leadership via both press and the Internet. The company first employed the innovative imprint technique for notebook PCs, which is a casing design created by advanced moulding techniques that integrate a hard-coat surface using a film transfer process. According to Hewlett-Packards (2008b) publicity, not only does the HP Imprint look fabulous, it is also more durable than traditional paint. HP intended to convey the message about personalisation, innovation and technology leadership to communicate with the public. Rising sales and market share show that customers seem to have had a favourable for reaction for HP notebook PCs. However it is difficult to know how consumers choose between the top four notebook PCs brands, namely Asus, Acer, HP and Lenovo. Consequently, this research aims to take a fresh look at consumer preferences, with a particular focus on HP because it is one of the most successful brands facing particular competition in Taiwan. Of particular interest is to understand how the HP brand image can help to promote it position in the market place, and what influence this has on consumers preferences. Research Purpose This research examines consumers perception and evaluation of the HP brand and makes a comparison with other three major brands in order to get a better understanding of brand strength and preference. There are three objectives in this research to help achieve the overall aim. Firstly, to understand key research issues by a literature review. The literature search will establish the main issues in this field to set the right direction for the study Secondly, to find out consumers brand preference among the four main players in Taiwans notebook PC market by carrying out questionnaire. Finally, to identify and evaluate consumer perceptions of HPs existing brand identity and communication methods. Research Question This study aims to provide significant data to support the selected topic. As DisplaySearch (2008) analysis indicates the increasing transition of consumers from desktop PCs to notebook PCs is having a direct impact on brands growth and market share, and as such the competition in the Taiwan notebook PC market is becoming increasingly intense. HP, one of the most successful and global notebook PC brands, currently operating in over 170 countries (Hewlett-Packard 2008a), needs to expand its market and succeed in Taiwans notebook PC market. Brands with established enterprise and retail presences have had the most success in growing market share in the past several quarters. HP promotes its brand with the slogan the computer is personal again, trying to emphasise personalised, advanced technology, together with an image of innovation image in order to gain worldwide market share. However, it seems these efforts are not working in Taiwan as effectively as in other regions. Therefore, HP struggling in the Taiwan market and facing increasingly strong international and local competitors in this market, does the brand identity which demonstrates personalisation, technology leadership and innovation really helps HP win the fierce competition in Taiwan market? And how HP can influence consumers attitude to improve HPs competitiveness in Taiwan? To this end some of the following questions will be part of the survey: What are most important factors when consumers choose notebook brands? How do consumers respond to HP brand identity? What do consumers think about HP brand communication methods? How do consumers position HP compare with three other brands? Dissertation Outline The dissertation is structured as follows. The introduction chapter is the overview of topic, industry status and research case objectives and goes in detail about the research work towards revealing consumer perceptions of brands. Chapter two is a literature review focusing on theories from concepts in branding discipline, consumer behaviour and marketing communication related to the notebook PC industry. Chapter three describes research methodology including research philosophy, research approach and strategy, the questionnaire design, and data collection. The fourth chapter consists of the research findings, where the empirical date is interpreted and discussed. The final part gives general conclusion as well as recommendations to HP, limitations of this study and directions for future research will also be presented. Literature Review Consumer Behaviour Consumer Behaviour Definition Arnould et al (2005) define consumer behaviour as the psychological and social processes that individuals or groups undergo in the acquisition, use and disposal of products (for example, notebook PCs), services (for example, professional software installation), ideas (for example, spiritual beliefs) or experiences (for example, travelling) and suggest that concept of the circle of consumption results in the marketing opportunities (see Figure 2-1). Understanding acquisition is very important to marketers and requires an understanding of the other phases where these links influence consumer beliefs, value and attitudes (Arnould et al 2005). Consumer behaviour is examined from market perspective that focuses on a particular brand and how to induce people to buy that brand whereas other academic researchers study consumer behaviour from behavioural and social sciences perspectives that emphasise an understanding and explanation of why, what and how people buy (Bagozzi et al 2002). Moreover, consumer behaviour is a division of human behaviour (Bagozzi 2002). Human behaviour refers to the process in which the individual interacts with his/her environment. This perspective tends to emphasise consumer behaviours and practices that help to organise our understanding of phenomena such as consumption rituals, myths and symbols as well as contribute a concern with the meaning and significance of consumption. Walters (1974) suggests that consumer behaviour concerns specific types of human actions that have a direct relation to the purchase of goods and services from organisations. The Use of High Technology It is necessary to know how people use high technology and what they intend to use it for by reflecting on the development of the high technology industry (Hamann et al 2007). Inventions such as the motor car provided products and were created to satisfy the real needs of people during the industrial age (Tomkins 2005). However, as life becomes busier and more stressful, people are forced to adapt the newest features offered by high technology continuously in all areas of their lives, even though they might not fully understood what it can do to help them (Kallaman Grillo 1996). This adaptation process is based on the evaluation of meaningful attributes that support a consumers beliefs, resulting shifts in a consumers frame of reference and evaluation criteria derived from the constantly changing environment, which makes it impossible to define a general pattern of purchasing behaviour (Hill 2003; Jiang 2004). Nowadays consumers expect convenience, quality and service in a product which is made available at anytime and at any place (Yelkur 2000; Winkler 1999; Silverhart 2004). Furthermore, people may adopt high-technology in order to remain in a particular social group or to join one they want to belong to (Kim et al 2001; Haughey 2004). Hamann et al (2007) define consumer electronics as electronic equipment intended for everyday use, which usually finds its application in entertainment, communications and office productivity technology such as mobile phones, digital cameras and notebook PCs. As the high-technology industry increased the speed of its development and started to increasingly focus on particular consumer segments and individual needs, people become more ready to accept technological innovations (McDaniel Gates 2002). For example, radio attracted 50 million listeners within 38 years of its invention and television required thirteen years to reach 50 million viewers, yet it only took the Internet four years to gain 50 million users (Temporal Lee 2001). The connection with brands and the problem of providing a unique selling point (USP) in current markets becomes a critical issue in this context, resulting in a shorter product life cycle (PLC), which has been reduced to a matter of weeks from what used to be years (Zajas Crowley 1995; Winkler 1999; Temporal Lee 2001). However, the most important change can be seen in the increasing adaptation of a mass-customisation strategy (Jiang 2004). The new toys produced by high-technology companies, such as the iPod and the Sony Playstation Portable (PSP), deliver apparently unique benefits to consumers, based on their image and preference match (Tomkins 2005; Klein 2000; Temporal Lee 2001). In order to build an effective branding strategy for current markets, it is therefore necessary to investigate consumers reasons behind buying high technology. The Consumer Decision Making Process Decision making is defined as a balanced combination of emotional and rational elements used to keep on looking for alternatives, to make a purchasing decision, or to get off the idea to buy entirely (Schiffman Kanuk 1994; Witt Meyer 2004; Hill 2003). Furthermore, the decision making process (refer to Figure 2-2) is a series of steps a consumer or an organisation may go through before choosing a brand or a product (Blackwell Engel 2005; Jobber Fahy 2003; Solomon M. et al 2002; Jobber 2007). This decision making process will be definitely influenced by consumer characteristics (Phillips Sternthal 1977; Wang et al 2008). Solomon et al (2002) suggest that consumer characteristics can be divided into two factors: demographic and life-style. In this research, some of the important elements of each factor appear in the questionnaire. Table 2-1 maps out the contents of each factor. A key determinant of the extent to which consumers evaluate a brand is their level of involvement which means the degree of perceived relevance and personal importance accompanying the brand choice (Blackwell Engel 2005). Jobber (2007) demonstrates that computer purchases are an example of high involvement decision making in Ajzen Fishbeins (1980) model (refer to Figure 2-3), which suggests that an attitude towards a brand is based on set of beliefs about the brand. High-involvement purchase models have proven more robust in predicting purchase behaviour than low-involvement purchases (Budd Spencer 1984; Farley et al 1981; Shimp Kavas 1984). Thus, investigating consumer attitude can be helpful in understanding consumers purchasing intensions. Effect of Consumer Attitude/Preference As we have stepped into the 21st century, the role of attitude has become increasingly important in influencing all aspects of consumer behaviour (Malhotra 2005). During the consumer decision process repeated, consumers have a kind of attitude to purchasing, such as beliefs, opinions, inclinations or biases, called consumer attitude that affects their decision making. More important these attitudes can be influenced and changed if the organisation adopts an effective communication strategy (Goldsmith et al 2000; Haugtvedt et al 1994; Brown Stayman 1992). Many studies identify the construct of attitude towards a brand as one of the most important determinants of consumers behavioural intentions (Fishbein Ajzen, 1975; Laroche et al 1996). Belk (1988) and Sirgy (1982) conclude the self-congruence theory explaining how consumers evaluate products to match their self-image. Ekinci Riley (2003), Graeff (1996) and Hong Zinkhan (1995) further suggest that a higher congruence between self-image and product image would positively prompt consumers attitudes or behaviour regarding brand attitude, brand preference, repurchasing intentions, product purchase decisions, and consumer satisfaction. Ahluwalia et als (2000) research shows that customers who have a positive attitude towards a brand (high commitment) would counter-argue negative information related to the brand and support the positive information. High commitment customers relate brand loyalty and advocacy with positive information about their favoured brand. Accordingly, low commitment customers give more weight to negative information than positive information because they perceive it to be more diagnostic. There are a number of factors which result in a consumers attitude to change including the nature of product change, strength of attitude towards the product, stored information about the product, product importance and communication. Based on these factors and research findings, discussion and recommendation will be introduced in the chapter five, mainly directed at possible changes in communication and perceptions in order to make the HP notebook brand more competitive in the Taiwanese market. Otherwise, the current research will provide some initial and exploratory insights into how notebook consumers perceive the different notebook brands in the Taiwanese notebook market. The survey questionnaire that examines consumer perceptions can be found in appendix B, and discussion on the main research findings are introduced in chapter four. Brand A brand is a distinguishing name or symbol (such as logo, trademark or package design) aimed to identify the goods or services of either one seller or a group of sellers, and to differentiate goods or services from those of competitors (Ghodeswar Luang 2008). Thus a brand signals to the consumer the source of the product and protects both the customer and the producer from competitors who would attempt to provide products or services that seem to be identical (Aaker 1991). Weilbacher (1995) argues that brands provide the main upon which consumers can identify and associate with a product or service or a group of products or services. From the consumers point of view, a brand can be defined as the total accumulation of all his/her experience. In other words, the brand is built up from all points of contact with the consumer (Kapferer 2004). A successful brand is an identifiable product, service, person or place, extended in such a way that the buyer or user perceives relevant, unique added values which match their needs most closely (Chernatony McDonald 1998). Branding in high-tech markets is also gaining increasing attention, since there is general consensus that branding becomes more important when high-tech products become accessible to mass consumers (Schoenfelder Harris 2004; Pettis 1995; Reddy 1997; Ward et al 1999). Successful brand building can not only strengthen a producers competitive position to withstand the increasing power of retailers (Park Srinivasan, 1994) but also bring advantages such as defending against competitors and building market share (Adams 1995). When the term brand equity is used in marketing functions it means brand description or brand strength, which is sometimes referred to as consumer brand equity to distinguish it from the accounting asset valuation meaning (Wood 2000). A better understanding of brand equity measurement is essential for an enriched operation of brand management (Pappu et al 2005). Pappu et al (2005) established a multi-dimensionality of consumer-based brand equity, consistent which is the conceptualisation of Aaker (1991). The overall results of the confirmatory factor analysis confirmed that consumer-based brand equity was a four-dimensional construct including brand awareness, brand associations, perceived quality and brand loyalty (Pappu et al 2005; Cobb-Walgren et al 1995; Zajas Crowley 1995). Washburn Planks (2002), Yoo Donthu (2001, 2002) and Yoo et al. (2000) developed a consumer based brand equity measure based on Aakers (1991) and Kellers (1993) conceptualisation but combined the dimensions of brand awareness and brand associations into one. Nevertheless, Wright et al (2007) discussed research issues concerning data collection, timing and measures of brand performance for the PC market and emphasised that it is important that the term brand equity is clearly defined and enjoys organisational consensus and perceived validity given the objectives and strategy for PC brands and the dynamics of the marketplace. There is no agreed measure of brand equity just as there are different measures of the various aspects of a brand. An important issue is how management finds it useful to define and use the term brand equity. Brand Awareness Brand awareness is regarded as an important notion in consumer behaviour, especially in terms of its implication to brand equity, which can be referred to as the value a brand name adds to a product. Keller (1993) declares that brand awareness is reflected upon consumers ability to recognise the brand under different circumstances. He suggests two basic approaches to measuring brand awareness. One is brand recall that relates to consumers ability to retrieve the brand when given the product category, the needs fulfilled by the category, or some other type of hint. Another is brand recognition that relates to consumers ability to confirm previous exposure to the brand when given the brand. Laurent et al (1995) also propose three classical measures of brand awareness in a given product category: (1) Spontaneous awareness: consumers are asked to name the brands they know without any cue, even if only by name, in the product category. The spontaneous awareness of brand X is the percentage of interviewees indicating they know the brand; (2) Top-of-mind awareness: using the same question, the top-of-mind awareness of brand X is the percentage of interviewees who name brand X first; (3) Aided awareness: brand names are showed to interviewees; the aided awareness of brand X is the percentage of interviewees who mention they know the brand. Laurent et al (1995) point out that for a leading brand, its aided awareness score may be extremely high, not allowing for detections of temporary changes; such changes may be more visible in a spontaneous awareness question. Conversely, if one is interested in a minor or start-up brand, one can be sure that its spontaneous score will be very low, maybe a few percent, not allowing for a very sensitive measure of evolution; its aided awareness will be more sensitive, and therefore more able to detect progresses in brand awareness. In this research, we are going to brand awareness for the four top laptop manufactures with both spontaneous and top-of-mind techniques to explore HP notebooks brand awareness in comparison with three other brands. Brand awareness plays an important role in understanding the consumer decision-making process. Many researchers assert that brand awareness has a significant effect on brand attitude and encourages consumers to consider products and services of that brand when purchasing (Brown Stayman 1992; K Consumer Perception and Evaluation of Hewlett-Packard Consumer Perception and Evaluation of Hewlett-Packard The Notebook PC Industry in Taiwan: An Examination Of Consumer Perception and Evaluation of Hewlett-Packard Abstract This management project is exploratory research to examine the Hewlett-Packard (HP) brand and the Taiwan notebook PC market. HP is one of major players in this market with a brand identity of personalisation, innovation and technology leadership. This objective of this research is to measure the perception of Taiwan consumers about their brand preferences as well as evaluate the effectiveness of HPs brand communication. By setting up focus group interviewing with wholesaler sales representatives and potential consumers, this research developed a structured questionnaire to test and analyse consumers attitudes. The self-administrated questionnaire was conducted online, getting 152 valid samples. It surveyed 20 different attributes of notebook products and brand images to discover consumers attitudes toward the 4 leading brands in the market- HP, Asus, Acer and Lenovo. The results of this research indicate that HP was not able to deliver the brand identity with much success and was ranked in a weaker position then Asus and Acer in terms of all attributes expect reliability in the Taiwan notebook market. It also shows that price is not the most important factor for consumers when they choose a notebook. Instead, much more emphasis is given to quality and function. In chapter 5 of this dissertation, there are some recommendations about HPs future development based on the survey findings. As low price is no longer the most important factor influencing consumers purchasing behaviour, HP should put much more effort on its brand image to create its competitive advantage and expand market share. Keywords Brand Association; Brand Image; Brand Positioning; Brand Preference; Consumer Behaviour; Consumer Perception; Decision Making Process; Hewlett Packard; Loyalty; Marketing Communication Preface I worked for Hewlett Packard Taiwan from 2002 to 2006 as a partner business manager. In that period, I acquired a lot of knowledge in channel management, both from HP itself as well as its partners. However, as a sales representative from the original vendor, I felt that sometimes I made decisions just following past experiences and the suggestions and advices of others without sufficient insight into consumers. Therefore, to prepare for my next career plan, I view this research on consumer perceptions and the position of HP in the Taiwanese notebook market as important preparation for my ambition to become a product manager. In helping me accomplish this management project, I would like to extend my thanks to many people for their confidence in me and for their professionalism. Firstly, I want to thank my supervisor, Dr. Steve Henderson for his patient guidance throughout the course of the research. Without him, it would have been difficult to finish this project. Secondly, I want to say thank you to all the friends who were willing to spare their time in helping me conduct the focus group and questionnaire survey. Their generous help made my research proceed without too many difficulties. Last but not least, I would like to thank my family, for their love, patience and understanding of my prolonged absence from home while pursuing my academic career. With their full support, I have been able to fully focus on finishing this dissertation. Introduction Background Overview Branding has been discussed for several decades as a way to distinguish the products of one producer from others. In increasingly competitive markets, powerful brands become essential to achieve the sustainable development of business. There are a number of views related to brands that are dominant in the literature and in the way that brands have been approached. Traditionally, brands were seen as symbols, and that was reflected even in the definition of brands expressed by the American Marketing Association (2008). In other words, brands were mainly regarded as transaction facilitators, far away from the relationship marketing perspective. Brands were also considered as the producers property. It was implied that the producer is mostly responsible for the communication of the brand, brand related activities, and brand reputation over the long run (Veloutsou 2008). Today, brands are compound entities and their expression includes the perception of the product characteristics, personality and values. It is acknowledged that they could be perceived differently by various corporate stakeholders. Accordingly, terms brand identity (the intended perception brand developers would like the brand to have) and brand image/ brand reputation (how it is perceived by the target audiences) have been developed. Therefore, brands can be the relationship builders (Veloutsou 2008). Actually relationship marketing for fast moving consumer goods relies to a great extent on brands to help in the development of the consumer-firm relationship (Kapferer 2004a; Selame 1993). According to Selame (1993), the function and predominance of brands in the fast-moving consumer goods market is uncontested. Most marketing executives in such industries would not even think to question the importance of brands. As well as the fast-moving consumer goods market, the high-tech industry sees a use of branding (Kapferer 2004). As Zajas Crowley (1995) point out, until the end of the 20th century, the use of brands in marketing high-technology products was minimal. All too often, marketing executives who oversee computers and other high-technology products manage their product lines or marketing mix activities with little consideration for the development of long-term brand recognition. This brings a problem when greater emphasis is given to a products features than to the positioning of its brand-name (Zajas Crowley 1995; Kapferer 2004). Taiwans Notebook Personal Computer Industry As a result of the increasing transition of consumers from desktop PCs to notebook PCs, Taiwans Notebook PC market showed considerable growth in terms of shipment volume. In 2007, 90,165 thousand units were shipped with annual market growth rate reaching 42.1%. MIC (2008) projects that Taiwans notebook PC market will maintain double digit growth until 2011. There is manufacturing competitiveness of Taiwanese notebook personal computer industry during its developing stages of the original equipment manufacturers (OEMs), original design manufacturers (ODMs), and original brand manufacturers (OBMs). A number of trends are affecting the cost of components and materials used to manufacture PCs. The rising cost of oil, Chinas newly enacted labour law (which has increased the cost of assembly labour), reduced tax incentives and the appreciation of the Renminbi (RMB) against the U.S. dollar are challenging the PC manufacturing ecosystems ability to maintain profit margins. Currently, profits run at about 5%. The top ODMs of notebook PCs have stated that they are unable to absorb the increased costs and plan to pass them on to clients (Tsai 2008). On 21 May 2008, Simon Lin, chairman of Wistron, told Taiwans Digitimes that Wistron would raise contract manufacturing prices. This follows similar statements in recent weeks from Compal and Quanta. Gartner (2008) has confirmed the disclosures with all three companies which controlled more than 69% of worldwide notebook PC production in 2007 (refer to Table 1-1). It is the first time these three have attempted, almost simultaneously, to raise prices, even at the risk of losing orders. However, the group carries some weight, which will likely strengthen their position in negotiations with vendors such as HP and Dell. Due to challenges to their competitive advantages, Taiwanese hi-tech enterprises have to consider whether to stay in the OEM field or develop their own brand marketing strategies. Some corporations choose to specialise in the OEM such as Hong Hai Precision Industry Co. Ltd. (Foxconn) and Taiwan Semiconductor Manufacturing Company Limited (TSMC). On the other hand, several firms, including Acer, Asus, and BenQ, recognised the importance of their own brands and have switched their investments and endeavours towards high value-added activities such as research and development, product innovation, and brand building (Chen et al 2007). The goal of all these development strategies is to strengthen competitiveness under the increasing pressure of the changing world environment (Tsai Hung 2007). At most Taiwanese companies, profit margins on sales of branded computers are roughly five times higher than on sales of computers and parts to resellers like HP and Dell, said Jerry Shen, Asusteks chief executive officer (2008). Taiwanese contract manufacturers such as Micro-Star Internal, Clevo, and Asustek (Asus) have started to market their own notebook PC brands through leveraging their manufacturing strengths, a trend that has increased competition across the industry (Simons 2008). Based on the information mentioned above, worldwide brands such as HP and Dell are facing keen competition in the notebook PC market, especially in Taiwan. The IDC report, as summarised by Chinatimes (2007), showed that the notebook market share of local brands Asus and Acer accounted for 33 percent and 32 percent respectively, followed by HP with 12 percent and Lenovo with 7 percent in the 2007 third quarter. In 2008Q1 Asus and Acer, gained over 69% of Taiwans notebook PC market share, including new product line Ultra Low-Cost PC such as Asuss Eee PC products whereas HP and Lenovo remained in the 3rdand 4thplace (Apple news 2008) Overview of HP HP is a leading PC manufacturer, with an approximately 5.6% share in the global hardware market in 2006. It is a provider of personal computing and other access devices, imaging and printing related products and services, and enterprise information technology infrastructure, including enterprise storage. It operates its hardware business through three business units: Enterprise Storage and Servers (ESS), Personal Systems Group (PSG) and Imaging and Printing Group (IPG) and services individual consumers, small- and medium-sized businesses and large enterprises, including the public and education sectors (Hewlett-Packard 2008a). During the three-year period, 2005-2007, its revenues grewat a Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of 10%, mainly due to increases in sales volume of personal systems in consumer and commercial markets. The PSG segment showed significant top line growth of 24.8% to $36,409m, and accounted for 43.5% of total hardware revenues in the fiscal year 2007. Increased sales volume of notebook PCs, particularly in emerging markets, contributed to higher revenue growth during the year (Business Insights 2008). HP remained the leader in the notebook PC market for the seventh consecutive quarter, maintaining an almost 2 million-unit lead over second placed Dell. In the seasonally slow first quarter of 2008, HP also managed to increase their market share Q/Q in five of six regions. Dell was less successful in Q108, increasing share Q/Q in only two regions. Like HP, third placed Acer posted Q/Q shared gains in five of six regions. HP was market leader in three of six regions, and in the fast-growing APAC market, closed to within a few thousand units of Acer. From a brand value perspective, The Interbrands (2007a) annual ranking of the Best Global Brands, in co-operation with BusinessWeek magazine ranked HP is number twelve of the worlds 100 top brands and number five of the technology brands (Table 1-3). HP has gained 9% in brand value since 2006, following a 10% slide from 2004 to 2005 (Kiley 2007). Kiley (2007) pointed out credit should go to CEO Mark Hurd, who told his subordinates that Hewlett-Packard Co. had to stop building and marketing the PC as if they were a commodity. Designing PCs that consumers actually want was the starting point. The marketing team then went about pitching HP PCs as a personal reflection of consumers desires and needs. Hence the slogan: The computer is personal again. was created (Appendix C). Last summer the company rolled out ads showing hip-hop mogul Shawn Jay-Z Carter mixing music and planning tours using an HP notebook PC (Interbrand 2007c) and using self-made ads by celebrities such as Serena Williams, Petra Nemcova and Jean-Michel Gondry even though HP did not pay these people for these ads (BusinessToday 2008). The objective of the campaign was to grow a more profitable worldwide business through the introduction, support, and marketing of innovative products, services, and solutions that will deliver the absolute best customer experience in personal technology. The campaign was targeted at users aged between 18 and 34 and small to medium-sized companies. Besides, HP delivered images related to innovation and technology leadership via both press and the Internet. The company first employed the innovative imprint technique for notebook PCs, which is a casing design created by advanced moulding techniques that integrate a hard-coat surface using a film transfer process. According to Hewlett-Packards (2008b) publicity, not only does the HP Imprint look fabulous, it is also more durable than traditional paint. HP intended to convey the message about personalisation, innovation and technology leadership to communicate with the public. Rising sales and market share show that customers seem to have had a favourable for reaction for HP notebook PCs. However it is difficult to know how consumers choose between the top four notebook PCs brands, namely Asus, Acer, HP and Lenovo. Consequently, this research aims to take a fresh look at consumer preferences, with a particular focus on HP because it is one of the most successful brands facing particular competition in Taiwan. Of particular interest is to understand how the HP brand image can help to promote it position in the market place, and what influence this has on consumers preferences. Research Purpose This research examines consumers perception and evaluation of the HP brand and makes a comparison with other three major brands in order to get a better understanding of brand strength and preference. There are three objectives in this research to help achieve the overall aim. Firstly, to understand key research issues by a literature review. The literature search will establish the main issues in this field to set the right direction for the study Secondly, to find out consumers brand preference among the four main players in Taiwans notebook PC market by carrying out questionnaire. Finally, to identify and evaluate consumer perceptions of HPs existing brand identity and communication methods. Research Question This study aims to provide significant data to support the selected topic. As DisplaySearch (2008) analysis indicates the increasing transition of consumers from desktop PCs to notebook PCs is having a direct impact on brands growth and market share, and as such the competition in the Taiwan notebook PC market is becoming increasingly intense. HP, one of the most successful and global notebook PC brands, currently operating in over 170 countries (Hewlett-Packard 2008a), needs to expand its market and succeed in Taiwans notebook PC market. Brands with established enterprise and retail presences have had the most success in growing market share in the past several quarters. HP promotes its brand with the slogan the computer is personal again, trying to emphasise personalised, advanced technology, together with an image of innovation image in order to gain worldwide market share. However, it seems these efforts are not working in Taiwan as effectively as in other regions. Therefore, HP struggling in the Taiwan market and facing increasingly strong international and local competitors in this market, does the brand identity which demonstrates personalisation, technology leadership and innovation really helps HP win the fierce competition in Taiwan market? And how HP can influence consumers attitude to improve HPs competitiveness in Taiwan? To this end some of the following questions will be part of the survey: What are most important factors when consumers choose notebook brands? How do consumers respond to HP brand identity? What do consumers think about HP brand communication methods? How do consumers position HP compare with three other brands? Dissertation Outline The dissertation is structured as follows. The introduction chapter is the overview of topic, industry status and research case objectives and goes in detail about the research work towards revealing consumer perceptions of brands. Chapter two is a literature review focusing on theories from concepts in branding discipline, consumer behaviour and marketing communication related to the notebook PC industry. Chapter three describes research methodology including research philosophy, research approach and strategy, the questionnaire design, and data collection. The fourth chapter consists of the research findings, where the empirical date is interpreted and discussed. The final part gives general conclusion as well as recommendations to HP, limitations of this study and directions for future research will also be presented. Literature Review Consumer Behaviour Consumer Behaviour Definition Arnould et al (2005) define consumer behaviour as the psychological and social processes that individuals or groups undergo in the acquisition, use and disposal of products (for example, notebook PCs), services (for example, professional software installation), ideas (for example, spiritual beliefs) or experiences (for example, travelling) and suggest that concept of the circle of consumption results in the marketing opportunities (see Figure 2-1). Understanding acquisition is very important to marketers and requires an understanding of the other phases where these links influence consumer beliefs, value and attitudes (Arnould et al 2005). Consumer behaviour is examined from market perspective that focuses on a particular brand and how to induce people to buy that brand whereas other academic researchers study consumer behaviour from behavioural and social sciences perspectives that emphasise an understanding and explanation of why, what and how people buy (Bagozzi et al 2002). Moreover, consumer behaviour is a division of human behaviour (Bagozzi 2002). Human behaviour refers to the process in which the individual interacts with his/her environment. This perspective tends to emphasise consumer behaviours and practices that help to organise our understanding of phenomena such as consumption rituals, myths and symbols as well as contribute a concern with the meaning and significance of consumption. Walters (1974) suggests that consumer behaviour concerns specific types of human actions that have a direct relation to the purchase of goods and services from organisations. The Use of High Technology It is necessary to know how people use high technology and what they intend to use it for by reflecting on the development of the high technology industry (Hamann et al 2007). Inventions such as the motor car provided products and were created to satisfy the real needs of people during the industrial age (Tomkins 2005). However, as life becomes busier and more stressful, people are forced to adapt the newest features offered by high technology continuously in all areas of their lives, even though they might not fully understood what it can do to help them (Kallaman Grillo 1996). This adaptation process is based on the evaluation of meaningful attributes that support a consumers beliefs, resulting shifts in a consumers frame of reference and evaluation criteria derived from the constantly changing environment, which makes it impossible to define a general pattern of purchasing behaviour (Hill 2003; Jiang 2004). Nowadays consumers expect convenience, quality and service in a product which is made available at anytime and at any place (Yelkur 2000; Winkler 1999; Silverhart 2004). Furthermore, people may adopt high-technology in order to remain in a particular social group or to join one they want to belong to (Kim et al 2001; Haughey 2004). Hamann et al (2007) define consumer electronics as electronic equipment intended for everyday use, which usually finds its application in entertainment, communications and office productivity technology such as mobile phones, digital cameras and notebook PCs. As the high-technology industry increased the speed of its development and started to increasingly focus on particular consumer segments and individual needs, people become more ready to accept technological innovations (McDaniel Gates 2002). For example, radio attracted 50 million listeners within 38 years of its invention and television required thirteen years to reach 50 million viewers, yet it only took the Internet four years to gain 50 million users (Temporal Lee 2001). The connection with brands and the problem of providing a unique selling point (USP) in current markets becomes a critical issue in this context, resulting in a shorter product life cycle (PLC), which has been reduced to a matter of weeks from what used to be years (Zajas Crowley 1995; Winkler 1999; Temporal Lee 2001). However, the most important change can be seen in the increasing adaptation of a mass-customisation strategy (Jiang 2004). The new toys produced by high-technology companies, such as the iPod and the Sony Playstation Portable (PSP), deliver apparently unique benefits to consumers, based on their image and preference match (Tomkins 2005; Klein 2000; Temporal Lee 2001). In order to build an effective branding strategy for current markets, it is therefore necessary to investigate consumers reasons behind buying high technology. The Consumer Decision Making Process Decision making is defined as a balanced combination of emotional and rational elements used to keep on looking for alternatives, to make a purchasing decision, or to get off the idea to buy entirely (Schiffman Kanuk 1994; Witt Meyer 2004; Hill 2003). Furthermore, the decision making process (refer to Figure 2-2) is a series of steps a consumer or an organisation may go through before choosing a brand or a product (Blackwell Engel 2005; Jobber Fahy 2003; Solomon M. et al 2002; Jobber 2007). This decision making process will be definitely influenced by consumer characteristics (Phillips Sternthal 1977; Wang et al 2008). Solomon et al (2002) suggest that consumer characteristics can be divided into two factors: demographic and life-style. In this research, some of the important elements of each factor appear in the questionnaire. Table 2-1 maps out the contents of each factor. A key determinant of the extent to which consumers evaluate a brand is their level of involvement which means the degree of perceived relevance and personal importance accompanying the brand choice (Blackwell Engel 2005). Jobber (2007) demonstrates that computer purchases are an example of high involvement decision making in Ajzen Fishbeins (1980) model (refer to Figure 2-3), which suggests that an attitude towards a brand is based on set of beliefs about the brand. High-involvement purchase models have proven more robust in predicting purchase behaviour than low-involvement purchases (Budd Spencer 1984; Farley et al 1981; Shimp Kavas 1984). Thus, investigating consumer attitude can be helpful in understanding consumers purchasing intensions. Effect of Consumer Attitude/Preference As we have stepped into the 21st century, the role of attitude has become increasingly important in influencing all aspects of consumer behaviour (Malhotra 2005). During the consumer decision process repeated, consumers have a kind of attitude to purchasing, such as beliefs, opinions, inclinations or biases, called consumer attitude that affects their decision making. More important these attitudes can be influenced and changed if the organisation adopts an effective communication strategy (Goldsmith et al 2000; Haugtvedt et al 1994; Brown Stayman 1992). Many studies identify the construct of attitude towards a brand as one of the most important determinants of consumers behavioural intentions (Fishbein Ajzen, 1975; Laroche et al 1996). Belk (1988) and Sirgy (1982) conclude the self-congruence theory explaining how consumers evaluate products to match their self-image. Ekinci Riley (2003), Graeff (1996) and Hong Zinkhan (1995) further suggest that a higher congruence between self-image and product image would positively prompt consumers attitudes or behaviour regarding brand attitude, brand preference, repurchasing intentions, product purchase decisions, and consumer satisfaction. Ahluwalia et als (2000) research shows that customers who have a positive attitude towards a brand (high commitment) would counter-argue negative information related to the brand and support the positive information. High commitment customers relate brand loyalty and advocacy with positive information about their favoured brand. Accordingly, low commitment customers give more weight to negative information than positive information because they perceive it to be more diagnostic. There are a number of factors which result in a consumers attitude to change including the nature of product change, strength of attitude towards the product, stored information about the product, product importance and communication. Based on these factors and research findings, discussion and recommendation will be introduced in the chapter five, mainly directed at possible changes in communication and perceptions in order to make the HP notebook brand more competitive in the Taiwanese market. Otherwise, the current research will provide some initial and exploratory insights into how notebook consumers perceive the different notebook brands in the Taiwanese notebook market. The survey questionnaire that examines consumer perceptions can be found in appendix B, and discussion on the main research findings are introduced in chapter four. Brand A brand is a distinguishing name or symbol (such as logo, trademark or package design) aimed to identify the goods or services of either one seller or a group of sellers, and to differentiate goods or services from those of competitors (Ghodeswar Luang 2008). Thus a brand signals to the consumer the source of the product and protects both the customer and the producer from competitors who would attempt to provide products or services that seem to be identical (Aaker 1991). Weilbacher (1995) argues that brands provide the main upon which consumers can identify and associate with a product or service or a group of products or services. From the consumers point of view, a brand can be defined as the total accumulation of all his/her experience. In other words, the brand is built up from all points of contact with the consumer (Kapferer 2004). A successful brand is an identifiable product, service, person or place, extended in such a way that the buyer or user perceives relevant, unique added values which match their needs most closely (Chernatony McDonald 1998). Branding in high-tech markets is also gaining increasing attention, since there is general consensus that branding becomes more important when high-tech products become accessible to mass consumers (Schoenfelder Harris 2004; Pettis 1995; Reddy 1997; Ward et al 1999). Successful brand building can not only strengthen a producers competitive position to withstand the increasing power of retailers (Park Srinivasan, 1994) but also bring advantages such as defending against competitors and building market share (Adams 1995). When the term brand equity is used in marketing functions it means brand description or brand strength, which is sometimes referred to as consumer brand equity to distinguish it from the accounting asset valuation meaning (Wood 2000). A better understanding of brand equity measurement is essential for an enriched operation of brand management (Pappu et al 2005). Pappu et al (2005) established a multi-dimensionality of consumer-based brand equity, consistent which is the conceptualisation of Aaker (1991). The overall results of the confirmatory factor analysis confirmed that consumer-based brand equity was a four-dimensional construct including brand awareness, brand associations, perceived quality and brand loyalty (Pappu et al 2005; Cobb-Walgren et al 1995; Zajas Crowley 1995). Washburn Planks (2002), Yoo Donthu (2001, 2002) and Yoo et al. (2000) developed a consumer based brand equity measure based on Aakers (1991) and Kellers (1993) conceptualisation but combined the dimensions of brand awareness and brand associations into one. Nevertheless, Wright et al (2007) discussed research issues concerning data collection, timing and measures of brand performance for the PC market and emphasised that it is important that the term brand equity is clearly defined and enjoys organisational consensus and perceived validity given the objectives and strategy for PC brands and the dynamics of the marketplace. There is no agreed measure of brand equity just as there are different measures of the various aspects of a brand. An important issue is how management finds it useful to define and use the term brand equity. Brand Awareness Brand awareness is regarded as an important notion in consumer behaviour, especially in terms of its implication to brand equity, which can be referred to as the value a brand name adds to a product. Keller (1993) declares that brand awareness is reflected upon consumers ability to recognise the brand under different circumstances. He suggests two basic approaches to measuring brand awareness. One is brand recall that relates to consumers ability to retrieve the brand when given the product category, the needs fulfilled by the category, or some other type of hint. Another is brand recognition that relates to consumers ability to confirm previous exposure to the brand when given the brand. Laurent et al (1995) also propose three classical measures of brand awareness in a given product category: (1) Spontaneous awareness: consumers are asked to name the brands they know without any cue, even if only by name, in the product category. The spontaneous awareness of brand X is the percentage of interviewees indicating they know the brand; (2) Top-of-mind awareness: using the same question, the top-of-mind awareness of brand X is the percentage of interviewees who name brand X first; (3) Aided awareness: brand names are showed to interviewees; the aided awareness of brand X is the percentage of interviewees who mention they know the brand. Laurent et al (1995) point out that for a leading brand, its aided awareness score may be extremely high, not allowing for detections of temporary changes; such changes may be more visible in a spontaneous awareness question. Conversely, if one is interested in a minor or start-up brand, one can be sure that its spontaneous score will be very low, maybe a few percent, not allowing for a very sensitive measure of evolution; its aided awareness will be more sensitive, and therefore more able to detect progresses in brand awareness. In this research, we are going to brand awareness for the four top laptop manufactures with both spontaneous and top-of-mind techniques to explore HP notebooks brand awareness in comparison with three other brands. Brand awareness plays an important role in understanding the consumer decision-making process. Many researchers assert that brand awareness has a significant effect on brand attitude and encourages consumers to consider products and services of that brand when purchasing (Brown Stayman 1992; K

Bilingual Education in Richard Rodriguez Aria Essay -- Foreign Langua

Bilingual Education in Richard Rodriguez' Aria Richard Rodriguez offers an alternate yet equally profound truth: While our heritage and culture may remain forever tied to and expressed in our native or "home" language, only through the dominant language of our country (English in most cases) can we achieve a place in society that gives us a feeling that we belong amongst everyone else. The only way we can truly become a part of our community and fit in is to dominate the current spoken language. In the United States, the dominant language is Standard English. In this excerpt from "Aria," a chapter in his autobiography entitled "Hunger of Memory": The Education of Richard Rodriguez, Rodriguez discusses public and private languages, and agrees that his achievements in English separated him from his Spanish family and culture but also brought him "the belief, the calming assurance that [he] belonged in public." We as human beings want to feel we belong. We search for that place in society where we are most comfortable all our l ives. One should consider the benefits of mastering the dominant language of the society they live in, but should also take into account the harm of taking your native language for granted. I will attempt to explore both of these considerations and examine Rodriguez place in life now, by stating the facts of who is now by the childhood decisions that were made. Most people who grow up with a foreign language spoken in there house grow up with an advantage in society. This advantage can only occur once the individual learning that foreign language also learns the dominant language spoken in that country. Once both of these languages are learned and mastered, the individual has now placed them se... ... all as a society can benefit from today. Such as, studying his literature, reading his autobiography, and looking up to him as a role model. Rodriguez is an educated man with a very good grasp on what life and the American society expect from all of us. Speak our language if you're going to live in our country. If one chooses not to make any sacrifice needed to accomplish the basic skills needed to learn English then your chances of belonging and succeeding will not happen easy. While our heritage and culture may remain forever tied to and expressed in our native or "home" language, only through the dominant language of our country (English in most cases) can we achieve a place in society that gives us a feeling that we belong amongst everyone else. The only way we can truly become a part of our community and fit in is to dominate the current spoken language.

Mise en Scene in Nosferatu Essay

F.W. Murnau’s â€Å"Nosferatu† is a classic visual tale of Bram Stoker’s â€Å"Dracula†. The silent film is filled with obsession and lust, surrealism as well as the prosaic theme of good versus evil. The film recounts the tale of Hutter, a real estate agent hungry for money, and his journey to vampire Count Orlak’s mansion, as well as the twists and turns found heavily within the scenes. Nosferatu (Count Orlak’s alter ego) falls for Hutter’s wife and moves in to the residence next door to the couple, where a series of events occur that would ultimately lead to the fanged beast’s demise. Mis en scene is a pivotal element throughout the film, especially for expressionist director Murnau, whose natural take on frightening the audience with the use of lighting, camera angles and framing supersedes that of directors who emphasize the huge props or costumes. The director’s excessive use of shadows is a tool used in order to make the events happening throughout the film become more realistic, as well as typifies the evil located in the character of Nosferatu. Cast shadows can be seen throughout the film and all is due to the lighting Murnau chose to give. For example, in among the last scenes of the movie, we see Ellen lying in bed with Nosferatu’s shadow casting above her. This take on camera angle and lighting is especially important as it sums up one of the main motifs, lust. Ellen does not struggle under the dominance of the Count, nor does she fear for her life, rather on the contrary she is offering herself to him and she likes it. This erotic interpretation can be splintered down to the way the director played with the setting. Ellen’s body is clearly brighter than her surroundings, which also reinforces the eroticism of her movements. Also, Nosferatu’s shadow is bigger than it is in any other scene, which allows the audience to feel that at that moment evil is the strongest, and the most powerful. Setting is a very crucial and profound constituent in the cinema, even more important than actors at times. Nature plays the role of symbolizing all that we cannot see through the character’s actions and through the plots words and scripting. Here, nature expresses the hardships and obstacles that reflect upon the emotions of Hutter, Ellen and Nosferatu. During Hutter’s first journey, it is calm and beautiful. However, during his travel back home, it becomes chaotic and disturbing. The instances when the nature  prevents Hutter from moving further arguably begin to show the paranormal side nature is supporting, for example, the river is filled with rocks, which makes it difficult for him to pass; the trees seem very chaotic, the wind is always coming towards him. The scene where Ellen is by the seashore, the sea seems wild and angry. The viewer also knows that it will bring Nosferatu to her too. The environment is helpful only when Nosferatu is around. The sea always seems calm while he is sailing the ship. Other scenes, where elements of nature such as creatures and plants are shown as ghosts or blood-suckers expose the alliance between the vampire and the elements of the Earth. This shows not only the power Nosferatu harbors within him, but that nature is well and truly an antagonist in this depiction of a vampire’s tale. Probably one of the biggest and most important quotes in the movie has been dropped near the beginning, as Hutter runs to his workplace and is stopped by the professor exclaiming â€Å"Wait, young man. You can’t escape your destiny by running away†¦Ã¢â‚¬  This line allowed the audience to begin thinking and to start connecting the limited amount of dots that have been given to us so early in the movie. We know that Nosferatu exists, and that something bad is going to happen to the protagonist, or the character the audience most identifies with. Such a saying would infer that no matter what Hutter did, destiny has already scripted his actions and what is yet to come. The mis en scene parallels the saying in a very subtle way as during the scenes in which Hutter is on his journey to the count, he always seems to be entering the picture, rather than the camera following him. This shows that no matter where he went, it was always predestined for him. Another tell was the clock that kept appearing, not only to give the viewer an idea of the setting but also to show that time is running out and destiny is knocking at the door. Alternatively, a redundant word that was used throughout the film was â€Å"Hurry!† which gave away two aspects in the film. The first that no matter how much you hurry, destiny will always be on the corner, and second it pinpoints at Hutter’s hyper actions and the way he is always in a rush. This can also be boiled down to the editing that slightly speeded up the movie in order to give an eerie vibe to the already paranormal state of the world the characters live in. The film’s camera angles also capture the audiences’ attention without them even knowing. Throughout the movie, Murnau’s choice  of camera angles had not only connected the viewer with the characters, but also connected the characters to one another. In many of the scenes where Hutter encounters the great Nosferatu, the camera angle shows the events occurring in the scene from the protagonist’s point of view, that way the audiences become one with the character, allowing them to see exactly as he does, thus realistically flowing the fear through them and connecting them with him. In other acts, Ellen would be at the seashore awaiting her beloved (but who?) and she would be pointing to the horizon, at the very same moment camera cuts to the ship Nosferatu is sailing and we can see the bow of the ship is pointing â€Å"towards† Ellen. This technique found in movies sanctions the spectators to see the small influences the characters have on each other, no matter where they may be. The movie’s total ambiance and mis en scene are vastly superior to that of the plot and acting, to such a level as to allow the cinema world to dissect the film piece by and study from the inspiring and largely accredited director Murnau, whose expressionist views and interpretations made the classic â€Å"A Symphony of Horrors† is today. With mis en scene and camera angles, as well as lighting and setting, Murnau combined so delicately as to achieve this work of art that shall be studied for years to come.

Minimum Wage: My Case to Raise It

IntroductionIn my opinion, minimum wage should be raised.   It is time for the United States to stand up for the original purpose of the Fair Labor Standards Act.   The low wage is hurting the economy as a whole because it is squeezing the lower income level so tightly that they have to make choices between paying rent or buying food.   The three main reasons for this increase are as follows.   First, an increase in minimum wage would directly impact those at the bottom of the economic ladder.   Second, by increasing minimum wage, you also increase the value of work.   Third, because the cost of living has increased so much, the cost of work must follow its lead.   Due to these reasons, minimum wage must be raised.HistoryIn 1938, the Fair Labor Standards Act was passed.   This was a reaction the hard work of women like Jane Adams and Eleanor Roosevelt who were trying to end child labor and increase the standard of living in the poorest communities. The labor unions we re advocating for it as early as the late 1800’s when women in the Lowell factories claimed they deserved equal pay and treatment.   Its passage was also influenced by industrial disasters like the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory fire in 1911, which killed many of the young workers in New York.   The Jungle written by Upton Sinclair about the struggles of the working class in Chicago, influenced politicians and communities and caused them to start looking at its workers in a different light and with increased understanding.It set the maximum work week, standards of child labor and overtime pay.   It also created minimum wage.   This is the idea that there is a minimum standard of pay that everyone should be given.   It was set at twenty five cents an hour.   The act succeeded in many ways but it failed in keeping pace with inflation.   Originally, this was written into the act.   Now, raising minimum wage to keep pace with inflation has become a political issue. U sually democrats are in favor of raising the wage and republicans are against it.   Because the federal government has failed to protect its people by raising the wage, many states and cities have taken it upon themselves to raise their own wages.Argument againstThe conservative argument against raising the wage is primarily economic.   They say  this action hurts the whole economy and doesn’t help the lower classes at all. (Chapman)   Their argument is that if employers have to pay more, they will limit the employees they have or even take their work overseas, which is a valid threat.   They claim that in reality, the people who benefit are in higher economic classes because they learn to manage their businesses more efficiently and the boom lines their pocketbooks.My ArgumentAs my thesis demonstrates I disagree with the conservative stance.   I feel that an  increase in the minimum wage would help the people intended.   It would add value to what they do and keep up with the cost of living, as it was originally designed to do.The lower income families in the U.S. are hurting. â€Å"Today more than 28 million people, about a quarter of the workforce between the ages of 18 and 64, earn less than $9.04 an hour, which translates into a full-time salary of $18,800 a year—the income that marks the federal poverty line for a family of four.† (Working and Poor)   It is extremely difficult, if not impossible to raise a family on that amount of money.   The argument has been made that you can make more money on welfare than working for minimum wage.   What kind of lesson does that teach?So, is the answer raising minimum wage.   According to Jeff Chapman in his brief for the Economic Policy Institute, it is.   â€Å"If the federal wage were raised to $7.00, the bottom 40% or households would receive nearly 60% of the benefits.† (Chapman)   He goes on to say, â€Å"Raising the minimum wage provides income support to families in need.   While it is important to understand that the minimum wage should not be judged solely on its efficiency at targeting low-income families, research shows that it does just that.†(Chapman)Business Weekly agrees with these finding. â€Å"Lifting the minimum wage by $1.50 an hour, would boost the incomes of 10 million workers.† (Working and Poor) My research indicates that raising the minimum wage would be an effective way to target lower income workers and increase their income.   This would help offset the cost of inflation, as I will prove is a necessity.Originally, the wage was designed to increase as the cost of living increased.   This system makes sense.   If things cost more, people need to make more money to afford them—not luxuries, necessities.   If this adjustment is not made, the consequences affect the family, not just the worker. â€Å"Some experts on homelessness say the numbers are growing because of the widening gap between low pay and high rents.† (Kaufman) â€Å"Real pay for the bottom 10 percent of wage earners rose less that one percent in adjusted dollars from 1979 to 2003, according to the Economic Policy Institute. (Kaufman)If the wage doesn’t keep up, how can people afford rent?   If I make just enough to cover my bills, and my rent increases but my salary doesn’t, I have no choice.   I would have to get another job, which may not be a possibility, try to work overtime, which my job might not allow, or move.   What if I live in the cheapest apartment available?   This is the cycle that must be stopped. It leads to hopelessness, debt and in some circumstances, homelessness.â€Å"Even if the minimum wage were not well-targeted at helping those in need, it serves an important role in the U.S. economy and society.   It is a fundamental statment of principle about the value of work, opportunity and the responsibilities of employers.† (Chapman) Increasin g minimum wage validates the worker.   As the girls in Lowell were looking for acknowledgement of the value of their work, so do the workers of today search for validation for what they do.When the government raises the wage, they are sending a clear message that they value the workers and understand their position.   The C.E.O. of Costco is quoted as saying, â€Å"We no longer have a motivated working class.† (Working and Poor)   This is a huge problem.   If you can’t take pride in your work, what’s the point of working at all, especially if you can take advantage of the welfare system? If no one values what you do, why try to do any better than the bare minimum?Raising the minimum wage demonstrates employer accountability.   The government is making them responsible for the people their success rests upon.   â€Å"No employer should be allowed to unreasonably profit by exploiting the lack of negotiating power of low-wage workers.† (Chapman)à ‚   Labor simply has no power anymore.   The unions have been broken and they have no voice.   Someone has to hold the employers accountable.   Someone must step forward for the workers.An increase in the wage would do just that.   As I have shown, it does have a direct affect on those in the deepest need. â€Å"Everyone should have the opportunity to earn a decent wage.   No American should be compelled to work at a rate that amounts to the federal poverty level.   This is equally true for a middle-class youth working to raise money for college as it is for a single mother supporting a family.† (Chapman)ConclusionMinimum wage is one small part of the Fair Labor Standards Act that was designed to protect the worker.   Society saw its people falling through the cracks and they stood up for those people, claiming that everyone who works hard deserves a chance to succeed.   Minimum wage is the foundation of that success.   I have shown three strong reasons for the need to increase minimum wage.   The first is that raising the wage directly affects those in the greatest need.They do benefit from a raise as it corresponds to the raise in the cost of living. My second reason demonstrated this.   As the cost of living increases so should the minimum wage.   This way, workers can easily adjust their earnings to cover new expenses and not have to make hard decisions that could greatly impact their families.   The third reason is philosophical.Adding value to the worker validates the job that is being done.   When employers are held to greater accountability, the working class feels they are appreciated.   This is so important for our society.   Welfare shouldn’t have to be an option for a family willing to work and take part in the economy.   Without a raise in the minimum wage, this might be a serious threat.   â€Å"Equality means dignity.   And dignity demands a job and a paycheck that lasts through the week.† (Weisman)   I feel this quote from Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. conclude my thoughts on this subject.

Understanding Maslows Theory of Self-Actualization

Understanding Maslows Theory of Self-Actualization Psychologist Abraham Maslows theory of self-actualization contends that individuals are motivated to fulfill their potential in life. Self-actualization is typically discussed in conjunction with Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, which posits that self-actualization sits at the top of a hierarchy above four lower needs. Origins of the Theory During the mid-20th century, the theories of psychoanalysis and behaviorism were prominent in the field of psychology. Though largely very different, these two perspectives shared a general assumption that people are driven by forces beyond their control. In response to this assumption, a new perspective, called humanistic psychology, arose.  The humanists wanted to offer a more optimistic, agentive perspective on human striving. The theory of self-actualization emerged out of this humanistic perspective. Humanistic psychologists claimed that people are driven by higher needs, particularly the need to actualize the self. In contrast to the psychoanalysts and behaviorists who focused on psychological problems, Maslow developed his theory by studying psychologically healthy individuals. The Hierarchy of Needs Maslow contextualized his theory of self-actualization within a hierarchy of needs. The hierarchy represents five needs arranged from lowest to highest, as follows: Physiological needs: These include needs that keep us alive, such as food, water, shelter, warmth, and sleep.Safety needs: The need to feel secure, stable, and unafraid.Love and belongingness needs: The need to belong socially by developing relationships with friends and family.Esteem needs: The need to feel both (a) self-esteem based on one’s achievements and abilities and (b) recognition and respect from others.Self-actualization needs: The need to pursue and fulfill one’s unique potentials. When Maslow originally explained the hierarchy in 1943, he stated that higher needs generally won’t be pursued until lower needs are met. However, he added, a need does not have to be completely satisfied for someone to move onto the next need in the hierarchy. Instead, the needs must be partially satisfied, meaning that an individual  can pursue all five needs, at least to some extent, at the same time.   Maslow included  caveats in order to explain why certain individuals might pursue higher needs before lower ones. For example, some people who are especially driven by the desire to express themselves creatively may pursue self-actualization even if their lower needs are unmet. Similarly, individuals who are particularly dedicated to pursuing higher ideals may achieve self-actualization despite adversity that prevents them from meeting their lower needs. Defining Self-Actualization To Maslow, self-actualization is the ability to become the best version of oneself. Maslow stated, â€Å"This tendency might be phrased as the desire to become more and more what one is, to become everything that one is capable of becoming.†    Of course, we all hold different values, desires, and capacities. As a result, self-actualization will manifest itself differently in different people. One person may self-actualize through artistic expression, while another will do so by becoming a parent, and yet another by inventing new technologies. Maslow believed that, because of the difficulty of fulfilling the four lower needs, very few people would successfully become self-actualized, or would only do so in a limited capacity. He proposed that the people who can successfully self actualize share certain characteristics. He called these people self-actualizers. According to Maslow, self-actualizers  share the ability to achieve peak experiences, or moments of joy and transcendence. While anyone can have a peak experience, self-actualizers have them more frequently. In addition, Maslow suggested that self-actualizers tend to be highly creative, autonomous, objective, concerned about humanity, and accepting of themselves and others. Maslow contended  that some people are simply not motivated to self-actualize. He made this point by differentiating between deficiency needs, or D-needs, which encompass the four lower needs in his hierarchy, and being needs, or B-needs. Maslow said that D-needs come from external sources, while B-needs come from within the individual. According to Maslow, self-actualizers are more motivated to pursue B-needs than non-self-actualizers. Criticism and Further Study The theory of self-actualization has been criticized for its lack of empirical support and for its suggestion that lower needs must be met before self-actualization is possible. In 1976, Wahba and Bridwell investigated these issues by reviewing a number of studies exploring different parts of the theory. They found only inconsistent support for the theory, and limited support for the proposed progression through Maslow’s hierarchy. However, the idea that some people are more motivated by B-needs than D-needs was supported by their research, lending increased evidence to the idea that some people may be more naturally motivated towards self-actualization than others. A 2011 study by Tay and Diener explored the satisfaction of needs that roughly matched those in Maslow’s hierarchy in 123 countries. They found that the needs were largely universal, but that the fulfillment of one need was not dependent on the fulfillment of another. For example, an individual can benefit from self-actualization even if they have not met their need to belong. However, the study also showed that when most citizens in a society have their basic needs met, more people in that society focus on pursuing a fulfilling and meaningful life. Taken together, the results of this study suggest that self-actualization can be attained before all of the  four other needs are met, but that having ones most  basic  needs met makes self-actualization much more likely.   The evidence for Maslow’s theory is not conclusive. Future research involving self-actualizers is needed in order to learn more. Yet given its importance to the history of psychology, the theory of self-actualization will maintain its place in the pantheon of classic psychological theories.   Sources Compton, William C. â€Å"Self-Actualization Myths: What Did Maslow Really Say?† Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 2018, pp.1-18, http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0022167818761929Maslow, Abraham H. â€Å"A Theory of Human Motivation.† Psychological Review, vol. 50, no. 4, 1943, pp. 370-396, http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Maslow/motivation.htmMcAdams, Dan. The Person: An Introduction to the Science of Personality Psychology. 5th ed., Wiley, 2008.McLeod, Saul. â€Å"Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs.† Simply Psychology, 21 May 2018. https://www.simplypsychology.org/maslow.htmlTay, Louis, and Ed Diener. â€Å"Needs and Subjective Well-Being Around the World.† Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, vol. 101, no. 2, 2011, 354-365, http://academic.udayton.edu/jackbauer/Readings%20595/Tay%20Diener%2011%20needs%20WB%20world%20copy.pdfWahba, Mahmoud A., and Lawrence G. Bridwell. â€Å"Maslow Reconsidered: A Review of Research on the Need Hierarchy Th eory.† Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, vol. 15, 1976, 212-240, http://larrybridwell.com/Maslo.pdf

African Elephant Essays - Elephants, Elephant, African Bush Elephant

African Elephant Essays - Elephants, Elephant, African Bush Elephant African Elephant The common name is the African Elephant, the scientific name is Loxodonta Africana, the phylum is Vertebrata, the class is Mammalia, the order is Proboscidea, and the family is Elephantidae. The Closest Relatives to the African Elephant are: the Asian Elephant, mammoths, primitive proboscidean (mastodons), sea cows, and hyraxes. Scientists believe that the African Elephant evolved from one of its closest relatives, the Sea Cow. The geographical location and range of the African elephant covers all of central and southern Africa. In Ethiopia there are isolated populations that exist around Lake Chad in Mali and Mauritania. Also in Kenya, Rhodesia, Tanzania, Zambia, Uganda, Zaire, and in National parks located in South Africa, as well as several other countries. African Elephants, originally, were found in all of the Sub-Saharan African habitats except desert steppes. Elephants still occupy diverse habitats such as: temperate grassland, tropical savanna and grass lands, temperate forest and rainforest, tropical rainforest, tropical scrub forest, and tropical deciduous forest despite their drastic decline in numbers. However, their migratory patterns and habitat use have changed, due to the fact that they are restricted to protected areas. The elephant can exist in many types of environments but it prefers places that have many trees and bushes, which the elephant needs both for food and shade. They also like warm areas that have plenty of rainfall. This ensures plenty of food, shade, and water. The elephant prefers a habitat of mixed woodland and grassland which gives them an opportunity to eat a variety of vegetation. African Elephants are considered herbivores, they are both browsers and grazers; they will eat rough sticks, stems and leaves of plants as well as grasses, sedges, and fruit. Their favorites are mangoes, berries and coconuts. An elephant eats up to 500 pounds of vegetation every day and drinks up to 50 gallons of water daily. Elephants must consume these giant quantities of food, due to their poor digestive system. The small intestine is 82 feet long, the large intestine 21 feet long, and the rectum adds a further 13 feet. The problem with the digestive tract lies in their gut; elephants have too few symbiotic bacteria. These are the organisms which help break down the cellulose of plant cell walls by producing enzymes called cellulases. The most remarkable feature of the elephants digestive system is its 5 feet long appendix, bigger than the stomach. Proteins, starches, and sugars are digested in the appendix. The elephant will excrete almost 200 pounds a day of semi-digested food. Elephants live together in strong family units which might have as few as two or as many as twenty members. When the group gets too big, it splits up; but the groups stay in close contact. Elephant life revolves around this unit which is usually headed by the oldest female. The family offers protection, aid, comfort, and teaching to all of its members. Within the units are cows, calves, and bulls. The male bulls are very solitary and most of the time travel only with other males, except during mating season when the bulls travel with the pack looking for a mate. The males remain with the family unit until they are about fourteen and then leave the family to join the other males. The African elephant usually gives birth to one calf every four years. The gestation period is approximately twenty to twenty two years. The newborn calf, which weighs 200-300 pounds and stands about three feet high, is cared for by all of the females in the pack, not just by the mother. The calf may nurse as long as eight years, or until its tusks are too long for the mother. It takes about 14 to 15 years for an elephant to fully mature. They grow to about 10-13 feet tall and 7.5 meters in length and weigh as much as 7 tons. The family will remain together throughout their lives. The elephants body has many special features which it has adapted throughout the centuries to help it survive in its environment. The most important part of the elephants body is its trunk. An elephant uses its trunk for many things. With it, the elephant can pick up objects that weigh as much as 600 lbs. This powerful trunk is also used to beat off attacking animals and sometimes mother elephants use their trunks to swat their babies. The trunk, which is very flexible, can curl over the elephants head so that the elephant can give

Circus Maximus History and Games

Circus Maximus History and Games The first and biggest circus in Rome, the Circus Maximus was located between the Aventine and Palatine hills. Its shape made it particularly suitable for chariot races, although spectators could also watch other stadium events there or from the surrounding hillsides. Each year in ancient Rome, from the early legendary period, the Circus Maximus became the venue for an important and popular celebration. The Ludi Romani or Ludi Magni (September 5-19) were held to honor Jupiter Optimus Maximus (Jupiter Best and Greatest) whose temple was dedicated, according to tradition, which is always shaky for the early period, on September 13, 509 (Source: Scullard). The games were organized by the curule aediles and were divided into ludi circenses as in circus (e.g., chariot races and gladiatorial combats) and ludi scaenici as in scenic (theatrical performances). The ludi started with a procession to the Circus Maximus. In the procession were young men, some on horseback, charioteers, the almost naked, competing athletes, spear-carrying dancers to flute and lyre players, satyr and Silenoi impersonators, musicians, and incense burners, followed by images of the gods and once-mortal divine heroes, and sacrificial animals. The games included horse-drawn chariot races, foot races, boxing, wrestling, and more. Ludi Romani and the Circus Maximus King Tarquinius Priscus (Tarquin) was the first Etruscan king of Rome. When he took power, he engaged in various political ploys to gain popular favor. Among other actions, he waged a successful war against a neighboring Latin town. In honor of the Roman victory, Tarquin held the first of the Ludi Romani, the Roman Games, consisting of boxing and horse racing. The spot that he selected for the Ludi Romani became the Circus Maximus. The topography of the city of Rome is known for its seven hills (Palatine, Aventine, Capitoline or Capitolium, Quirinal, Viminal, Esquiline, and Caelian). Tarquin laid out the first racetrack circuit in the valley between the Palatine and Aventine Hills. Spectators could view the action by sitting on the hillsides. Later Romans developed another type of stadium (Colosseum) to suit other games they enjoyed. The ovoid shape and seating of the circus were more suited to chariot races than to wild beast and gladiator fights, although the Circus Maximus held both. Stages in the Building of the Circus Maximus King Tarquin laid out an arena known as the Circus Maximus. Down the center was a barrier (spina), with pillars at each end around which charioteers had to maneuver carefully. Julius Caesar enlarged this circus to 1800 feet in length by 350 feet wide. Seats (150,000 in Caesars time) were on terraces over stone arched vaults. A building with stalls and entrances to the seats surrounded the circus. End of the Circus Games The last games were held in the sixth century CE. Factions The drivers of the chariots (aurigae or agitatores) that raced in the circus wore team colors (factions). Originally, the factions were White and Red, but Green and Blue were added during the Empire. Domitian introduced short-lived Purple and Gold factions. By the fourth century CE, the White faction had joined the Green, and the Red had joined the Blue. The factions attracted fanatically loyal supporters. Circus Laps On the flat end of the circus were 12 openings (carceres) through which the chariots passed. Conical pillars (metae) marked the starting line (alba linea). At the opposite end were matching metae. Starting on the right of the spina, the charioteers raced down the course rounded the pillars and returned to the start 7 times (the missus). Circus Hazards Because there were wild beasts in the circus arena, spectators were offered some protection through an iron railing. When Pompey held an elephant fight in the arena, the railing broke. Caesar added a moat (euripus) 10 feet wide and 10 feet deep between the arena and the seats. Nero filled it back in. Fires in the wooden seats was another danger. The charioteers and those behind them were in particular danger when they rounded the metae. Other Circuses The Circus Maximus was the first and largest circus, but it was not the only one. Other circuses included the Circus Flaminius (where the Ludi Plebeii were held) and the Circus of Maxentius. The games became a regular event in 216 BCE in the Circus Flaminius, partly to honor the fallen champion, Flaminius, partly to honor the gods of the Plebes, and to honor all gods due to the dire circumstances of their struggle with Hannibal. The Ludi Plebeii was the first of a whole string of new games beginning in the late second century BCE to gather favor from whatever gods would listen to Romes needs.